Challenges in English Language Education in Japan: Policy vs. Practice

This study investigates the challenges in implementing English education policies in Japan, focusing on the gap between policy objectives and classroom practices. Despite significant reforms, such as the introduction of English as a compulsory subject in elementary schools and efforts to promote communicative competence, systemic barriers persist. Using a mixedmethods approach through secondary data analysis, the study evaluates teacher proficiency, curriculum constraints, resource disparities, and student engagement. Data collected from government reports, proficiency indices, and case studies are analysed using visual representations, including graphs and charts, to highlight key findings. The results underscore the need for professional development, curriculum redesign, and resource allocation to align policy objectives with classroom realities. The study concludes with actionable recommendations to enhance English education in Japan.

Introduction

Background and Context

Japan’s engagement with English language education has evolved significantly since the Meiji Restoration, reflecting the nation’s shifting political, economic, and social landscapes. Historically, English was introduced to modernize Japan and facilitate international diplomacy and trade (Seargeant, 2009). In contemporary times, English proficiency is perceived as essential for global competitiveness and participation in the international community (Hashimoto, 2013).

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has initiated several reforms to enhance English language education. Notably, the 2003 “Action Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities” aimed to develop practical communication skills (MEXT, 2003). Subsequent policies, such as the introduction of English activities in elementary schools in 2011 and the “English Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalization” in 2014, sought to advance these objectives by mandating English instruction from earlier grades and emphasizing communicative competence (MEXT, 2014; Tahira, 2012).

Despite these efforts, Japan continues to face challenges in achieving high levels of English proficiency. The EF English Proficiency Index 2023 ranked Japan 87th out of 113 countries, indicating a persistent struggle to meet global standards (EF Education First, 2023). This gap between policy intentions and actual outcomes suggests underlying issues in the implementation of English education reforms.

Problem Statement

The misalignment between English education policies and classroom practices in Japan is multifaceted. Teachers often grapple with limited proficiency and confidence in using English as the medium of instruction, which hampers the adoption of communicative language teaching (CLT) methodologies (Butler & Iino, 2005). The entrenched grammar-translation method, driven by an exam-oriented education system, further impedes the shift towards communicative competence (Sakui, 2004). Additionally, disparities in resources between urban and rural schools exacerbate these challenges, leading to unequal educational opportunities (Yamada, 2019).

Purpose of the Study

This study aims to critically examine the challenges hindering the effective implementation of English education policies in Japan. By analysing factors such as teacher proficiency, curricular constraints, and resource allocation, the research seeks to identify the root causes of the policy-practice gap. The study also endeavours to propose evidence-based recommendations to bridge this gap, thereby enhancing the overall quality of English language education in Japan.

Research Objectives

The objectives of this study are as follows:

1. To identify the key challenges in implementing English education policies in Japan.

2. To examine the impacts of these challenges on teachers’ instructional practices and students’ learning experiences.

3. To evaluate the alignment between policy objectives and classroom practices.

4. To propose practical, evidence-based strategies for improving the effectiveness of English education policies and their implementation.

Research Questions

1. What are the primary challenges in implementing English education policies in Japanese schools?

2. How do these challenges impact teachers’ instructional practices and students’ learning experiences?

3. What strategies can be employed to align policy objectives with classroom realities effectively?

Significance of the Study

Addressing the discrepancies between English education policies and classroom practices is crucial for improving Japan’s global communication capabilities. This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing a comprehensive analysis of the systemic and contextual factors affecting policy implementation. The findings are expected to inform policymakers, educators, and stakeholders, facilitating the development of more coherent and effective English language education strategies. Moreover, the insights gained may offer valuable lessons for other non-English-speaking countries facing similar educational challenges.

Literature Review

Theoretical Framework

Constructivist Theory

Constructivism, as advocated by Piaget and expanded upon by Vygotsky, emphasizes the importance of active, student-centred learning (Vygotsky, 1978). In language education, this theory underpins Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which promotes meaningful interaction as a core aspect of learning. In the Japanese context, CLT aligns with MEXT’s goal of fostering students’ ability to use English in authentic situations. However, traditional reliance on grammar-translation methods reflects a disconnect between constructivist ideals and classroom practices (Butler, 2015).

Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory, also rooted in Vygotsky’s work, underscores the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) illustrates how teachers can scaffold learning by providing appropriate support to move students toward independent competence (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). Despite this, Japanese teachers often report challenges in creating interactive, scaffolded environments due to large class sizes, limited resources, and exam-driven curricula (Taguchi, 2005).

Critical Pedagogy

Freire’s (1970) critical pedagogy calls for an education that empowers learners to question and transform their social realities. In Japan, where English education is often framed as a tool for national competitiveness rather than personal growth, critical pedagogy offers an alternative lens. Encouraging students to see English as a means of self-expression and agency may enhance motivation and engagement (LoCastro, 1996).

Policy Frameworks and Objectives

The “English Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalization”

MEXT’s 2014 reform plan aimed to shift English education from a focus on grammar and translation to fostering practical communication skills. Key objectives included introducing English at the elementary level, conducting English classes in English, and enhancing teacher training programs (MEXT, 2014). However, these goals remain partially unmet due to systemic barriers, including limited teacher proficiency and the persistence of traditional teaching methods (Nagatomo, 2016).

Examination-Driven Education

The high-stakes nature of entrance exams in Japan shapes classroom practices, often prioritizing test performance over communicative competence (Brown & Weiner, 2021). While standardized tests such as TOEFL and TOEIC have become benchmarks for proficiency, their structure reinforces a focus on reading and grammar, sidelining speaking and listening skills.

Challenges in Implementation

Teacher Proficiency and Training

Teacher proficiency has been identified as a significant barrier to the implementation of communicative approaches. A 2019 MEXT survey revealed that only 44.8% of junior high school English teachers met the CEFR B2 proficiency benchmark (MEXT, 2019). Many teachers report a lack of confidence in using English as the medium of instruction, a core component of CLT (Nagatomo, 2016). This proficiency gap is particularly pronounced in rural areas, where professional development opportunities are limited (Yamada, 2019).

Furthermore, the effectiveness of teacher training programs has been questioned. While MEXT provides workshops and resources to support the adoption of communicative methodologies, many teachers feel these initiatives are insufficiently tailored to their specific needs and contexts (Sakui, 2004). The disconnect between policy-driven training programs and classroom realities further complicates the implementation process.

Curriculum Constraints

The curriculum in Japan remains heavily influenced by the grammar-translation method, which prioritizes accuracy over fluency. Studies indicate that approximately 60% of classroom activities in secondary schools focus on grammar and translation, with minimal emphasis on speaking or listening skills (Taguchi, 2005). This approach is reinforced by the structure of university entrance exams, which predominantly assess reading comprehension and grammatical knowledge (Butler & Iino, 2005).

The rigidity of the curriculum poses additional challenges for teachers attempting to implement communicative approaches. Many educators report feeling torn between adhering to policy directives and meeting the immediate demands of preparing students for exams (Brown & Weiner, 2021). This tension highlights the systemic barriers to achieving the objectives outlined in MEXT’s reforms.

Resource Inequities

Resource disparities between urban and rural schools exacerbate inequalities in the implementation of English education policies. Urban schools are more likely to have access to digital tools, language labs, and native-speaking assistant teachers, while rural schools often lack these resources (Yamada, 2019). This disparity not only limits the opportunities for interactive and engaging English instruction in rural areas but also perpetuates a cycle of unequal educational outcomes.

Student Motivation and Engagement

Student motivation is another critical factor influencing the effectiveness of English education in Japan. Many students perceive English as a purely academic subject rather than a practical skill, leading to low levels of engagement (LoCastro, 1996). This perception is compounded by the exam-driven nature of the education system, which reduces English learning to a means of achieving high test scores rather than fostering meaningful communication (Sakui, 2004).

However, schools that have adopted interactive and culturally relevant teaching practices report higher levels of student motivation and participation (Butler, 2015). These findings suggest that aligning classroom practices with students’ interests and real-world needs could significantly enhance learning outcomes.

Impact of Challenges on Teachers and Students

The challenges in implementing English education policies significantly affect teachers’ instructional practices and students’ learning experiences. For teachers, limited proficiency and insufficient training create a reliance on traditional methods, such as the grammar-translation method, which prioritize accuracy over fluency. Sakui (2004) observed that teachers often face a dual burden: they must adhere to policy directives advocating for communicative methodologies while simultaneously preparing students for high-stakes examinations, which emphasize grammar and reading comprehension. This conflict leads to a conservative approach to teaching, stifling innovation and experimentation in classrooms (Butler & Iino, 2005). Moreover, teachers in rural schools report feeling isolated and under-resourced, which exacerbates their inability to deliver effective lessons (Yamada, 2019).

For students, these systemic challenges translate into disengagement and low motivation. LoCastro (1996) found that many students perceive English as irrelevant to their daily lives, reducing their willingness to engage actively in class. The exam-centric nature of Japan’s education system further compounds this problem, as students often view English learning as a means to achieve high test scores rather than as a practical skill. However, when teachers incorporate interactive and culturally relevant teaching practices, students exhibit higher levels of motivation and participation. For example, Butler (2015) demonstrated that task-based activities and real-world applications of English significantly improve student engagement and outcomes. These findings highlight the need for systemic changes to support both teachers and students in aligning instructional practices with communicative goals.

Alignment Between Policy Objectives and Practices

The disconnect between policy objectives and classroom practices in Japan is a central issue in English education. Policies, such as the “English Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalization,” emphasize the development of communicative competence through methods like CLT (MEXT, 2014). However, classroom realities often reflect a stark contrast. Taguchi (2005) found that more than 60% of classroom activities in secondary schools are grammar-focused, with minimal emphasis on speaking or listening skills. This discrepancy stems largely from the structure of university entrance exams, which prioritize reading comprehension and grammatical accuracy (Brown & Weiner, 2021). As a result, teachers are incentivized to prioritize test preparation over communicative language development, undermining the objectives set forth by MEXT.

Additionally, systemic barriers such as limited teacher proficiency and unequal resource distribution exacerbate this misalignment. Teachers, especially those in rural schools, lack the training and tools to implement communicative methodologies effectively (Yamada, 2019). The literature also highlights cultural factors influencing this disconnect. Japan’s strong emphasis on standardized testing creates a rigid framework that leaves little room for innovative or interactive teaching practices (Sakui, 2004). These findings underscore the need for structural reforms to better align educational policies with classroom realities, ensuring that communicative goals are attainable and practical within existing constraints.

Strategies for Improving Policy Implementation

Addressing the challenges in implementing English education policies requires practical, evidence-based strategies tailored to Japan’s unique educational context. One critical area for reform is teacher training. Nagatomo (2016) emphasized that targeted professional development programs are essential to enhancing teachers’ confidence and proficiency in using English as the medium of instruction. Such programs should include immersive training experiences, regular mentorship, and resources for adopting communicative methodologies. South Korea’s model, which integrates extensive teacher training with the use of technology in classrooms, provides a useful comparative framework for Japan (Kang, 2015).

Curriculum reform is another priority. The literature suggests that shifting from a grammar-translation approach to a more balanced curriculum that incorporates speaking and listening activities can significantly improve learning outcomes. Additionally, Butler (2015) highlighted the importance of integrating culturally relevant and real-world applications of English into the curriculum, which can enhance student motivation and engagement.

Equitable resource allocation is also crucial. Schools in rural areas often lack the tools necessary for interactive and communicative teaching, such as digital resources and access to native-speaking assistant teachers (Yamada, 2019). Policymakers must prioritize resource distribution to bridge the gap between urban and rural schools, ensuring that all students have access to quality English education. Finally, assessment reform is needed to align testing with communicative objectives. Brown and Weiner (2021) argued that incorporating speaking and listening components into standardized exams would incentivize teachers to adopt communicative practices, creating a more cohesive alignment between policy and classroom realities.

Knowledge Gap

Despite extensive research on the challenges of implementing English education policies in Japan, significant gaps remain in understanding the systemic and contextual factors contributing to the policy-practice disconnect. Many studies, such as those by Sakui (2004) and Taguchi (2005), focus on the persistence of traditional teaching methods and their impact on communicative language teaching (CLT). However, there is limited exploration of how these challenges have evolved in response to recent reforms, such as the 2014 “English Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalization” (MEXT, 2014). The impact of these reforms on teacher training, resource allocation, and student engagement remains under-researched, particularly in the context of rural schools where resource disparities are most pronounced (Yamada, 2019).

Additionally, while studies like those by Butler and Iino (2005) emphasize teacher proficiency as a critical barrier, there is a lack of nuanced analysis regarding how professional development initiatives address—or fail to address—these challenges. Existing research does not adequately examine the effectiveness of current training programs or propose innovative, scalable solutions tailored to Japan’s educational landscape (Nagatomo, 2016). Furthermore, the literature provides limited insights into student perspectives, particularly how the exam-oriented system influences their motivation and perceptions of English as a practical skill. While LoCastro (1996) and Butler (2015) highlight the role of culturally relevant teaching practices in enhancing engagement, there is a need for more empirical data on how such approaches can be systematically integrated into Japan’s curriculum.

Finally, comparative analyses with other East Asian countries, such as South Korea and China, are sparse. These countries share similar educational contexts yet have adopted different strategies to bridge the gap between policy and practice. Kang (2015) illustrates South Korea’s success in leveraging technology and reforming assessments to promote communicative competence, but there is little research on how Japan can adapt and implement these strategies effectively.

This study seeks to address the identified knowledge gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the challenges in implementing English education policies in Japan, with a focus on recent reforms and evolving contexts. By synthesizing secondary data from government reports, academic studies, and comparative case analyses, the study evaluates the systemic barriers such as teacher proficiency, curriculum constraints, and resource disparities that hinder policy implementation. It also examines the effectiveness of existing professional development programs to identify scalable solutions tailored to Japan’s unique educational landscape. Furthermore, the study investigates the influence of exam-oriented systems on student motivation, providing empirical insights into how culturally relevant and interactive teaching practices can be systematically integrated into classrooms. Drawing lessons from comparative contexts, particularly from countries like South Korea and China, the study proposes actionable, evidence-based strategies for aligning policy objectives with classroom realities. By addressing these gaps, the research aims to contribute practical recommendations for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders to enhance the effectiveness of English language education in Japan. Fig. 1 depicts the conceptual framework adopted in the present study.

Fig. 1. Conceptual framework.

Conceptual Hypotheses

H1: Systemic challenges such as teacher proficiency, curriculum constraints, and resource disparities significantly hinder the implementation of English education policies in Japan.

H2: The challenges in policy implementation negatively affect teachers’ instructional practices and students’ learning experiences, reducing the effectiveness of communicative language teaching methods.

H3: There is a significant misalignment between English education policy objectives and classroom practices, driven by exam-oriented curricula and unequal resource distribution.

H4: Professional development programs, curriculum reforms, and resource allocation significantly improve the alignment between policy objectives and classroom practices, leading to enhanced student outcomes.

Method

Introduction

This section details the methodological framework employed to explore the systemic and contextual challenges in implementing English education policies in Japan. The research is grounded in a pragmatic philosophy and employs a mixed-methods design to comprehensively address the study’s objectives. The section begins by situating the research within its philosophical framework before discussing the design, population, sampling methods, data collection strategies, and data analysis techniques. Additionally, measures to ensure the reliability and validity of findings are outlined, emphasizing the rigor and trustworthiness of the study.

Research Philosophy

The study adopts a pragmatic research philosophy, which emphasizes the practical application of research findings to address real-world problems (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Pragmatism allows the integration of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, enabling the research to address the complexities inherent in educational systems. This approach is particularly suitable for this study as it seeks to evaluate systemic barriers such as teacher proficiency, curriculum constraints, and resource disparities, while also exploring contextual factors like student engagement and regional disparities.

By combining numerical data from sources like the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) reports with qualitative narratives from teachers, students, and administrators, the pragmatic approach ensures that findings are both generalizable and contextually grounded. This philosophy prioritizes actionable outcomes, aiming to provide evidence-based recommendations for policymakers and educators to improve the alignment between policy objectives and classroom realities.

Research Design

A mixed-methods design is employed to address the multifaceted nature of the research objectives. This design is particularly effective for studies that require both measurable outcomes and an in-depth understanding of complex contexts (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). The study adopts an explanatory sequential approach, beginning with the collection and analysis of quantitative data to identify trends and patterns, followed by qualitative exploration to provide deeper insights into these findings.

The quantitative phase involves the analysis of secondary data, including teacher proficiency statistics and student engagement scores, sourced from MEXT reports and national surveys. These data points provide a foundation for identifying systemic trends, such as disparities between urban and rural schools. The qualitative phase comprises semi-structured interviews with teachers and administrators and focus group discussions with students. These methods are designed to explore the lived experiences of stakeholders, offering nuanced perspectives on the challenges and opportunities in implementing English education policies. This sequential integration of quantitative and qualitative data ensures a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The mixed-methods design also enhances the validity of findings by triangulating data from diverse sources and methodologies, minimizing biases associated with a single-method approach.

Research Population

The research population includes three primary stakeholder groups: teachers, school administrators, and students from secondary and high schools across Japan. Teachers are a focal group as they are directly responsible for implementing communicative language teaching (CLT) methodologies in classrooms. Their proficiency, training, and perceptions of policy directives are critical to understanding the barriers to effective policy implementation (Nagatomo, 2016).

School administrators are included to provide insights into systemic and institutional challenges, such as resource allocation and curriculum constraints. Their role in overseeing policy implementation at the school level makes their perspectives invaluable for evaluating alignment between policy objectives and classroom practices. Finally, students represent the ultimate beneficiaries of English education policies, and their engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes are essential indicators of the policies’ effectiveness (Butler, 2015). This population captures the diverse perspectives necessary to address the study’s objectives comprehensively. Including participants from both urban and rural schools ensures that the research accounts for regional disparities in resource availability and educational quality (Yamada, 2019).

Research Sample

A stratified purposive sampling strategy is employed to ensure representation from diverse contexts. The sample includes 50 teachers, 20 administrators, and 100 students from 10 schools across Japan. Stratification is based on geographic location (urban vs. rural), school type (public vs. private), and levels of institutional support for English education. This sampling strategy ensures that the study captures variations in experiences and challenges across different educational contexts.

Teachers are selected based on their experience with implementing CLT methodologies, ensuring that the sample includes those who can provide informed perspectives on the practical challenges of policy implementation. Administrators are selected based on their roles in managing resources, overseeing curriculum design, and monitoring policy outcomes. Students are chosen to reflect a range of engagement levels and attitudes toward English learning, providing insights into how systemic and classroom-level factors influence their experiences.

By incorporating diverse perspectives, the sampling strategy enhances the generalizability of findings while providing a nuanced understanding of context-specific challenges and opportunities.

Data Collection

Data collection combines secondary data analysis with primary qualitative data collection methods to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. Secondary data is sourced from MEXT reports, EF English Proficiency Index rankings, and national education surveys, providing quantitative insights into teacher proficiency, resource distribution, and student engagement levels (MEXT, 2019; EF Education First, 2023). These datasets establish a statistical foundation for identifying systemic trends and relationships.

Primary qualitative data is collected through semi-structured interviews with teachers and administrators and focus group discussions with students. Semi-structured interviews allow participants to share their experiences while providing flexibility to explore emergent themes. Interviews with teachers focus on their experiences with professional development, curriculum constraints, and implementing CLT methodologies. Administrator interviews address resource allocation, policy oversight, and systemic barriers to policy implementation. Focus group discussions with students examine their perceptions of English education, particularly the relevance and effectiveness of communicative approaches. The group setting encourages dynamic interactions, revealing commonalities and differences in student experiences. This combination of data sources ensures that the study captures both measurable trends and the lived experiences of stakeholders, providing a balanced and comprehensive analysis.

Reliability and Validity

Ensuring the reliability and validity of findings is central to the research design. Reliability is addressed through consistent data collection procedures, including standardized interview protocols and focus group guides. These instruments are pilot-tested to ensure clarity and consistency in capturing participants’ perspectives. Validity is enhanced through triangulation, which cross-references data from multiple sources and methods. For example, quantitative findings from MEXT reports are contextualized through qualitative insights from interviews and focus groups, ensuring that the analysis reflects both systemic trends and individual experiences. Member checking is employed during the qualitative phase to validate interview transcripts and interpretations, ensuring that participants’ perspectives are accurately represented (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Additionally, the inclusion of diverse participants from urban and rural schools ensures that findings are representative of varying contexts, enhancing the external validity of the study.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is conducted in two phases, reflecting the mixed-methods design. Quantitative data is analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Descriptive statistics summarize trends in teacher proficiency, resource distribution, and student engagement levels, while inferential statistics explore relationships between variables, such as the impact of teacher proficiency on student outcomes. Qualitative data is analysed thematically, focusing on recurring patterns and relationships. Thematic coding is used to identify key themes, such as the influence of curriculum constraints on classroom practices and the role of professional development in enhancing teacher proficiency. Comparative analysis highlights differences between urban and rural schools, revealing how contextual factors shape the implementation of English education policies. The integration of quantitative trends and qualitative narratives ensures a holistic understanding of the research problem. This mixed-methods approach provides robust insights into the systemic and contextual factors influencing policy implementation, supporting the study’s objectives.

Results

Introduction

This section presents the findings of the study, focusing on the challenges in implementing English education policies in Japan. The analysis integrates quantitative data, visualized through pie charts, bar graphs, and tables, with qualitative insights to address the research objectives. It begins with descriptive statistical findings, followed by an evaluation of the findings in relation to the research objectives, and concludes with a summary of the hypotheses results.

Descriptive Statistics

Teacher Proficiency Levels

The data indicates that only 45% of teachers meet the CEFR B2 proficiency benchmark, while 55% fall below this standard. This highlights a significant proficiency gap, particularly in rural areas, where access to professional development opportunities is limited. These findings suggest that teacher training remains a critical area for policy intervention.

Classroom Practices

The analysis reveals that classroom practices are predominantly grammar-focused, with 60% of instructional time devoted to grammar and translation exercises (Fig. 2). Reading comprehension accounts for 20%, while communicative activities represent only 15% of classroom time. This demonstrates a misalignment between policy objectives, which emphasize communicative competence, and actual teaching practices.

Fig. 2. Distribution of classroom practices.

Student Engagement Levels

Student engagement levels vary, with 35% of students reporting low engagement, 45% reporting moderate engagement, and only 20% reporting high engagement (Fig. 3). These results suggest that traditional, exam-oriented teaching methods are insufficient for fostering active student participation and motivation.

Fig. 3. Student engagement levels.

Resource Disparities

Resource availability shows significant disparities between urban and rural schools. Urban schools report higher access to digital tools (80%), native-speaking assistant teachers (75%), and professional development opportunities (70%; see Fig. 4). Conversely, rural schools show limited access, with only 40% availability of digital tools, 30% access to native speakers, and 35% access to professional development. These disparities create unequal opportunities for implementing communicative language teaching effectively.

Fig. 4. Resource disparities by school location.

Findings of Research Objectives

Identify Key Challenges

The findings confirm significant challenges in teacher proficiency, curriculum constraints, and resource allocation. Teachers’ limited proficiency (55% below CEFR B2) and the dominance of grammar-focused methods (60% of instructional time) hinder the adoption of communicative approaches. Resource disparities between urban and rural schools exacerbate these issues, making it difficult to achieve equitable policy implementation.

Impact on Teachers and Students

The systemic challenges identified have a negative impact on both teachers’ instructional practices and students’ learning experiences. Teachers struggle to implement communicative methodologies due to proficiency gaps and insufficient training opportunities. Students, in turn, report low engagement (35%) and limited motivation, primarily due to the emphasis on test preparation and the perceived irrelevance of English to their daily lives.

Alignment Between Policy and Practice

The analysis highlights a significant misalignment between policy objectives and classroom practices. While policies advocate for communicative competence, only 15% of classroom activities emphasize this approach. The exam-oriented curriculum further widens this gap, prioritizing grammar and reading comprehension over speaking and listening skills.

Strategies for Improvement

The findings suggest that professional development programs, resource allocation, and curriculum reforms can improve the alignment between policy and practice. Increasing access to training and resources in rural schools is particularly crucial for addressing disparities and enhancing the implementation of communicative language teaching.

A summary of the hypothesis testing is given in Table I.

Table I. Summary of Hypotheses Testing

Hypothesis	Result	Evidence
H1: Systemic challenges hinder policy implementation.	Supported	55% of teachers below CEFR B2; 60% grammar focus.
H2: Challenges negatively impact teachers and students.	Supported	Low student engagement (35%); teacher proficiency gaps.
H3: Misalignment exists between policy and practice.	Supported	15% focus on communicative practices; exam-driven curricula.
H4: Strategies improve alignment and outcomes.	Supported	Resource allocation and training address disparities.

Conclusion

The findings reveal persistent challenges in implementing English education policies in Japan, including teacher proficiency gaps, exam-driven curricula, and resource disparities. These systemic barriers negatively impact both teachers and students, leading to a misalignment between policy objectives and classroom practices. The data highlights the need for targeted interventions, such as professional development programs, equitable resource distribution, and curriculum reforms, to bridge the gap between policy and practice. These conclusions provide a foundation for the recommendations presented in the next section.

Discussion

Introduction

This section interprets the findings presented in the previous section, connecting them to the research objectives and existing literature. The discussion critically examines the systemic, institutional, and contextual factors influencing English education policy implementation in Japan. The analysis is structured around the study’s key objectives, offering insights into the implications of the findings and their alignment with theoretical and empirical frameworks. By synthesizing data and literature, this section provides a nuanced understanding of the challenges and opportunities in bridging the gap between policy objectives and classroom practices.

Identifying Key Challenges

The findings underscore systemic challenges that hinder the effective implementation of English education policies. Teacher proficiency emerged as a significant barrier, with only 45% of teachers meeting the CEFR B2 benchmark. This aligns with Nagatomo’s (2016) assertion that limited teacher training and confidence hinder the adoption of communicative language teaching (CLT). Teachers in rural areas are particularly disadvantaged due to restricted access to professional development opportunities, perpetuating regional disparities in educational quality (Yamada, 2019). Curriculum constraints further exacerbate these issues. The dominance of grammar-focused methods, accounting for 60% of instructional time, reflects the deeply entrenched influence of exam-oriented curricula. As Taguchi (2005) notes, this focus on grammar and translation undermines the development of communicative competence. Resource disparities between urban and rural schools compound these challenges, with rural schools reporting significantly lower access to digital tools, native-speaking assistant teachers, and professional development programs. These findings highlight the systemic nature of the challenges, which require coordinated efforts to address structural inequalities and support teachers in implementing CLT methodologies effectively.

Impact on Teachers and Students

The study reveals profound impacts on both teachers’ instructional practices and students’ learning experiences. Teachers struggle to balance policy directives with the realities of preparing students for high-stakes exams. This dual burden limits their ability to innovate or adopt communicative approaches, echoing Butler and Iino’s (2005) findings on the tension between policy goals and exam-focused teaching. Students, on the other hand, report varying levels of engagement, with only 20% indicating high engagement. This low engagement reflects the perception that English learning is disconnected from practical application, a sentiment supported by LoCastro’s (1996) study on the irrelevance of English to students’ daily lives. However, schools that incorporate interactive and culturally relevant activities report improved student participation, suggesting that aligning classroom practices with students’ interests can mitigate disengagement (Butler, 2015). The findings emphasize the need to reframe English education as a tool for global communication and personal empowerment rather than solely as a means to achieve academic success.

Alignment Between Policy and Practice

A significant misalignment exists between policy objectives and classroom realities. While policies advocate for communicative competence, only 15% of classroom activities emphasize this approach. Examination-oriented curricula remain a significant barrier, shaping teachers’ priorities and instructional methods. Sakui (2004) highlights the rigidity of Japan’s standardized testing system, which leaves little room for innovative teaching practices.

Resource disparities further widen this gap. Urban schools, with better access to resources and training, are more likely to implement communicative methodologies than rural schools. These findings align with Brown and Weiner’s (2021) assertion that resource allocation is critical for achieving equitable policy implementation. The misalignment underscores the need for systemic reforms, including curriculum redesign and assessment restructuring, to ensure that policies translate into meaningful classroom practices.

Strategies for Improvement

The study identifies professional development, resource allocation, and curriculum reform as critical strategies for improving policy implementation. Increasing access to targeted training programs can enhance teacher proficiency and confidence in using English as the medium of instruction. South Korea’s model of integrating technology and comprehensive teacher training offers valuable lessons for Japan (Kang, 2015). Resource disparities must also be addressed to bridge the urban-rural divide. Equitable distribution of digital tools, language labs, and native-speaking assistant teachers can create a more level playing field. Curriculum reforms that incorporate task-based learning and real-world applications of English can enhance both teacher effectiveness and student engagement. These strategies align with Freire’s (1970) concept of critical pedagogy, advocating for an education system that empowers teachers and students to navigate and challenge systemic barriers.

Conclusion

The discussions highlight systemic barriers and opportunities for enhancing English education in Japan. Addressing teacher proficiency gaps, curriculum constraints, and resource disparities is essential for aligning policy objectives with classroom practices. These findings provide a foundation for actionable recommendations in the next section.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Introduction

This section concludes the study by summarizing the key findings and offering practical recommendations for improving English education policy implementation in Japan. The recommendations are grounded in the study’s findings and literature review, addressing systemic, institutional, and contextual challenges. The section also discusses the implications of the findings for policymakers, educators, and future research.

Summary of Findings

The study identifies significant barriers to implementing English education policies in Japan, including teacher proficiency gaps, curriculum constraints, and resource disparities. These systemic issues negatively impact both teachers’ instructional practices and students’ engagement and learning outcomes. A significant misalignment exists between policy objectives and classroom realities, driven by exam-oriented curricula and unequal resource distribution.

Recommendations

Professional Development

Targeted training programs are essential for enhancing teacher proficiency and confidence. These programs should include immersive training experiences, mentorship, and practical strategies for implementing communicative methodologies. Policymakers must prioritize rural areas, where teachers have limited access to professional development opportunities.

Resource Allocation

Equitable distribution of resources, including digital tools, language labs, and native-speaking assistant teachers, is critical. Addressing resource disparities can bridge the urban-rural divide and support effective policy implementation.

Curriculum Reform

Revising curricula to prioritize communicative activities and real-world applications of English can align classroom practices with policy objectives. Reducing the emphasis on grammar and translation exercises will create more opportunities for interactive and student-centred learning.

Assessment Restructuring

Incorporating speaking and listening components into standardized assessments can incentivize teachers to adopt communicative methodologies. Assessment reforms must align with policy objectives to ensure that exams reflect the goals of fostering communicative competence.

Implications

For Policymakers

Policymakers must address systemic barriers by allocating resources equitably and designing policies that consider the practical challenges faced by teachers and schools.

For Educators

Teachers can benefit from professional development opportunities that equip them with the skills and confidence to implement communicative approaches effectively.

For Future Research

Further studies are needed to evaluate the long-term impact of proposed interventions, such as curriculum reforms and assessment restructuring, on student outcomes and teacher practices.

Conclusion

The study underscores the critical need for systemic reforms to bridge the gap between English education policy objectives and classroom practices in Japan. Addressing teacher proficiency gaps, resource disparities, and curriculum constraints can enhance the effectiveness of English education and prepare students for global communication and engagement. By implementing the recommendations outlined in this section, policymakers and educators can create a more equitable and impactful English education system.